[RS] Q.14 What is FEV1 ?

Ans.

FEV1 (Forced expiratory volume):

Definition : The volume of air expired forcefully at one second is called forced expiratory volume. It is also know as timed vital capacity.

Normal value: (In a normal person FEV1 is more than 80% in one second):

1.     FEV1 is – 80% of vital capacity in first second (FEV1 /FVC %).

2.     FEV1 is – 93% of vital capacity in 2 second.

3.     FEV1 is – 97% of vital capacity in 3 second.

[RS] Q.13 Define vital capacity(VC), factors affecting vital capacity

 Ans.

Vital capacity: (FVC or FEV)

The maximum amount of air that a person can expire forcefully after a forceful inspiration is called vital capacity (VC).

Amount – about 4600 ml.

Factors affecting vital capacity:

       1)    Age – It more in young.

       2)    Sex – 20-25% less is female.

       3)    Surface area – It is proportional to surface area.

       4)    Posture – Lying – Lowest (↑ Pulmonary blood volume)

                             Sitting – More than lying

                             Standing – Highest

5)          Strength of respiratory muscles - More the strength, more vital capacity such as athletes.

6)          Disease in the lungs and pleura causes decrease vital capacity such as-

·  Tuberculosis

·  Ch. Asthma

·  Ch. Bronchitis

·  Pulmonary edema, etc.

Importance:

It is an index of lung function and provides useful information about-

a)           Abnormal ventilation due to airway obstruction, fibrosis of lungs.

b)          Mechanical interference with chest expansion and compression.

c)           Strength of respiratory muscles.

[RS] Q.12 Types of dead space.

Ans.

1)  Anatomical dead space: (By fowler’s method)

The volume of gas that remains in all space of respiratory system other than the alveoli and other closely related gas exchange areas, this space is called anatomical dead space.

2)    Physiological dead space: (By Bohr’s equation)

When the alveolar dead space is included with total measurement of dead space is called physiological dead space.

Normally the anatomical and physiological dead space are equal but in person with partially functional or nonfunctional alveoli is some parts of lungs, the physiological dead space will be greater than anatomical dead space. (10 times or 1 to 2 liters).

[RS] Q.11 What is Dead space and Dead space air?

 Ans.

Dead space:

The space in the respiratory passage occupied by gas but does not take part in gaseous exchange but only acts as a reservoir of air is called dead space.

Dead space air:

The amount of air remains in the respiratory passages and does not part in gaseous exchange called dead space air. It is about 150 ml.

[RS] Q.10 What is Pulmonary ventilation, alveolar ventilation, minute respiratory volume ?

Ans.

i)     Pulmonary ventilation:

It means the inflow and out flow of air between the atmosphere and lungs alveoli per minute.

ii)    Alveolar ventilation:

It means the volume of air that enters into the respiratory zone per minute and participates in the gas exchange.

VA   = (VT-VD) Freq.

       = (500-150) × 12      

     = 4200 ml/min.

     = 4.2 L /min.

VA= Alveolar ventilation

VT = Tidal volume= 500ml

VD= Dead space volume (physiological)=150ml

Freq.= Frequency of respiration per minute (respiratory rate)= avg. 12 breaths/min.)

  

iii)   Minute respiratory volume:

It is the total amount of new air moved into the respiratory passages each minute.

Minute res. Volume       = V_T × RR   ( Here, Tidal vol. = 500 ml, Res. rate = 12 breaths/min)

                                      = 500 × 12

                                      = 6000 ml/min.

                                      = 6 Liters/min.

[RS] Q.9 Some terms:

Eupnoea – Means normal breathing.

Tachypnoea – Means rapid breathing than normal.

Bradypnoea – Means slow breathing than normal.

Apnoea – Means temporary cessation of breathing.

Dyspnoea – Means difficulty in breathing.

Hypoxia – Means lack of O2 at tissue level.

Anoxia – Means total lack of O2.

Hypercapnia – Means excess CO2 is blood.

Hypocapnia – Means decrease CO2 is blood.

[RS] Q.8 What is Respiratory distress syndrome (Hyaline membrane disease)?

 Ans.

Many premature babies have little or no surfactant in the alveoli when they are born and their lungs have an extreme tendency to collapse, sometimes as great as six to eight times that in a normal adult person this condition is called respiratory distress syndrome.

[RS]Q.7 What is surfactant give its composition and important

Ans.

Surfactant:

It is a surface active agent in water of lung alveoli which greatly reduces the surface tension of the fluid lining the lung alveoli, composed of several phospholipid, proteins and ions and secreted by special surfactant secreting epithelial cells called type-II alveolar cells.

Composition:

·  Phospholipid – dipalmitoyl phosphatidycholine.

·  Surfactant apoproteins

·  Calcium ions

Importance:

Ø                 Surfactant decrease the surface tension of the fluid lining the alveoli          thus prevents the lungs collapse.

Ø                 It helps in the expansion of lungs of a new born babies.

Ø                 It stabilizes the size of alveoli.

Ø                 It prevents the accumulation of edema fluid in alveoli.

[RS]Q.6 Compliance of the Lungs:

 Ans.

The extent to which the lungs will expand for each unit increase in transpulmonary pressure is called lung compliance.

It is about 200 ml of air/cm of H2O transpulmonary pressure. That is, every time the trauspulmonary pressure increase 1cm of H2O, the lung volume will expand 200 ml.

Importance:

·  In restrictive lung disease, lung compliance reduced.

·  In obstructive lung disease, lung compliance Increased. 

[CVS] Q.18) Define tachycardia with cause:

Ans:

It means increase heart rate above 100 beats/min.

Cause:

A) Physiological :

1. Increase in Sympathetic activity (exercise, emotion)
2. Pregnancy

B) Pathological:

1. Anxiety
2. Fever
3. Anemia
4. Heart failure
5. Thyrotoxicosis
6. Drugs : beta-adrenoceptor agonists

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TIME TABLE FOR WRITTEN PART OF THE 1ST, 2nd & FINAL PROFESSIONAL MBBS EXAMINATION

UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA

TIME TABLE FOR WRITTEN PART OF THE 1ST, 2nd & FINAL PROFESSIONAL MBBS EXAMINATION OF JULY, 2012 OF THE UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA.

Place of Examinations: Respective Medical College

Time: 10 AM to 1.00PM

FIRST PROF. MBBS EXAMINATION OF JULY’2012  (NEW CURRICULUM ):

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[CVS] Q.17) What are the factors affecting heart rate?

Ans.

(1) Higher centre: Stimulation of post group of hypothalamic nucleus increase heart rate. Middle group decrease heart rate. Stimulations of area-13 of frontal lobe cause tachycardia.

(2) Cardio-vascular reflexes:

(a) Baroreceptor reflex→ (stimulate) of Baroreceptor→decrease HR

(b) Brain Bridge reflex→ (stimulate) of Brain Bridge reflex →increase HR

(3) Respiration:

Heart rate increase during inspiration particularly in children.

Heart rate decrease during expiration.

(4) Temperature:

Increase Temp. →increase HR by (stimulated) the SA node

(5) Muscular exercise:

[CVS] Q.16) What is heart rate? Give the normal values of heart rate different ages:

Definition:

The number of heart beat per minute is called heart rate.

- Normal heart rate:

       (1) Adult: 60-90 beats/min.

       Avg.72 beats/min.

       (2) New born: 130-140 beats/min.

[CVS] Q.15) Interpretation of a normal ECG :

Ans :

A normal electrocardiogram composed of-

P wave - caused by atrial depolarization before atrial contraction begins.

Q wave - caused by septal depolarization.

R wave - caused by apical left ventricular depolarization.

S wave - caused by post basal left ventricular depolarization.

T wave- caused by ventricular depolarization.

QRS complex - Cased by ventricular depolarization.

[CVS] Q.14) What is ECG? Give its importance.

Ans:

It is a graphical recording of electrical changes of the heart by electrodes to the surface of the body.

Importance:

1. ECG gives accurate information about sinus rhythm, conduction intervals and cardiac axis.
2. Helps in diagnosis of myocardial ischemia.
3. Helps in diagnosis of myocardial infarction.
4. Helps in diagnosis of heart block.
5. Helps in diagnosis of ventricular hypertrophy.
6. Helps in diagnosis of arrhythmia, fibrillation etc.
7. Helps in diagnosis of early stage of hyperkalemia.
8. Effects of drugs:

            a) Digitalis

            b) Quinine

[RS] Q.5) Pressure related to respiration:

ans.

a)    Intrapleural pressure

b)    Alveolar pressure (Intrapulmonary pressure)

c)    Transpulmonary pressure

a)Intrapleural pressure:

·  It is the pressure of the fluid in between two layers of pleura.

·  It requires to prevent lungs collapse.

·  It is always negative due to continual absorption of fluid from the space into the capillaries. This absorption creates a partial vacuum and produce a negative

[RS] Q.4) Muscles of respiration:

Ans. 

Muscles of respiration: 

A ) In quite inspiration:

• The Diaphragm
• External intercostal muscle

B ) In force full inspiration:

• The diaphragm
• External intercostal muscle
• Sternoclidomastoid muscle
• Scaleni muscle

[RS] Q.3) What is respiration, Phages of respiration, types of respiration, rate of respiration.

Ans.

Respiration:
                   It is a physiological process which means the transport of O2 from the atmosphere to cell of the body for oxidation and elimination of CO2 and other volatile metabolic end products from the cell to atmosphere.

Phages of respiration:

• Inspiration (active process) - It means intake of air into lungs. It is about 2 seconds.
• Expiration (passive process) – It means output of air from lungs. It is about 3seconds.

[RS] Q.2) Zone of Lungs:

Ans. 

i) Conductive zone.
ii) Respiratory zone.

Conductive zone: (From nose, Oropharynx, Pharynx, Larynx, trachea, bronchi up to terminal bronchioles)
It is the area of air ways where no gas exchange takes place due to thickness of the wall of muscle &

[RS] Q.1) Division of respiratory tract:

Ans.
 
a) Upper respiratory tract which included-

•  Nose 
•  Nasopharynx 
•  Oropharynx
•  Larynx up to vocal fold.

b) Lower respiratory tract which included-

• Larynx below the vocal fold 
• Trachea 
• Two bronchi
• Bronchioles 
• Terminal bronchioles
• Respiratory bronchioles 
• Alveolar duct 
• Atria 
• Air sac 
• Alveoli

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[CVS] Q.13) Name the vasodilator and vasoconstrictor agents.

Ans.
a. Vasodilator:

• -NO, kinins, prostacyclin, ANP, histamine, VIP,
• -↑ CO₂ , ↓O₂ , ↑ local temperature, ↓ local P ^H

b. Vasoconstrictor:

• -Angiotensin ІІ, epinephrine, nor-epinephrine, endothelin-1, thromboxaneA₂
• - ↓local temperature

[CVS] Q.12) Classify blood vessels on physiological point of view (functional classification):

Ans.

1. Windkesel ( distribution vessels): All large arteries .
2. Resistance vessels: Arterioles, terminal arterioles.
3. Exchange vessels: Capillaries.
4. Capacitance vessels: Veins and venacava.

[CVS] Q.11) What is AV nodal delay? Give its causes and importance:

Ans.
Definition: AV node is responsible for the delay in transmission of impulse generated in SA node. This delay in impulse transmission is called AV nodal delay. It is about 0.09 second.
Causes:

1. Junctional fibers of AV node are very small in size.
2. Resting membrane potentials of these fibers are much negative than the normal resting membrane potential of cardiac muscle.
3. Very few gap junctions connect the successive fibers in the pathway, so that there is great resistance to the conduction of excitatory ions from one fiber to the next.
4. Prolonged refractory period of AV node.

Importance:
For this delay, the atria get time to empty their content (blood) into the ventricles before ventricular contraction begins.

[CVS] Q.10) Why AV node is called reserve pacemaker of the heart?

Ans.
When SA node fails to generates impulse then AV node become the pace maker of the heart and generates impulse 40-60 impulse/min. So, AV node is called the reserve pacemaker of the heart.

[CVS] Q.9) Why SA node is called pacemaker of the heart?

Ans.

• SA node generates the impulse at first.
• Rate of impulse generation is higher (70-80 impulse/ min.) than any other junctional tissues of the heart.
• SA node maintains normal cardiac rhythm.

 

[CVS] Q.8) Name the junctional tissues of the heart with rate of impulse generation:

Ans.

Junctional tissues:	Impulse generation/ min.:
Sino-atrial node (SA node)	70-80
Inter nodal pathway	60
Atrio-ventricular node (AV node)	40-60
Bundle of His and its branches	30-36
Purkinje fiber	15-40

[CVS] Q.7) Properties of cardiac muscle:

Ans.

 1. Autorhythmicity
 2. Conductivity
 3. Excitability & contractility:
        a. All or none law.
        b. Frank starling law
4. Refractory period

[CVS] Q.6) What are the junctional tissues or conductive system of the heart?

Ans.
a) Sino-atrial node (SA node).
b) Inter nodal pathway.
c) Atrio-ventricular node (AV node).
d) AV bundle or bundle of His and its branches.
e) Purkinje fibers.

[CVS] Q.5) Types of heart muscle:

Ans.

    a) Atrial muscle
    b) Ventricular muscle
    c) Specialized excitatory and conductive muscle fibers:
                                 i. SA node
                                ii. Inter nodal pathway
                               iii. AV node
                               iv. AV bundle
                                v. Left and right bundles of purkinje fibers

[CVS] Q.4) Function of heart valves:

Ans.

1. One way direction of blood flow.
2. Prevents regurgitation of back flow of blood during their opening and closure.
3. Concern with production of heart sounds.

[CVS] Q.3) Types of heart valves:

Ans. There are four types of heart valves:

1. Right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve due to three cusps).
2. Left atrioventricular valve (mitral valve or bicuspid valve due to two cusps).
3. Aortic valve (Semi lunar valves or tricuspid valve).
4. Pulmonary valve (Semi lunar valves or tricuspid valve).

[CVS] Q.2) How many openings of the heart ?

Ans.

There are four openings in the heart:

•  Right atrio-ventricular opening (in between  right   Atrium &  right  Ventricle)
• Left atrio-ventricular opening (in between  left  Atrium &  left  Ventricle)
• Aortic opening (arise from left ventricle)
• Pulmonary opening (arise from right ventricle)

[CVS] Q.1) Chamber of the heart:

Ans.

Heart has four chambers:

1. Right atrium
2.  Left atrium
3. Right ventricle
4.  Left ventricle

• Right & left atrium receive blood from periphery of the body.
• Right & left ventricle pump out blood to whole body.

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[GP] Q.18. Examples of Positive feedback system.

* Blood clotting.

* Child birth during parturition.

* Generation of nerve action potential.

* Luteinizing Hormone surge before ovulation.

[GP] Q.17. Examples of Negative feedback system.

Ans.

(i) Regulation of carbon dioxide concentration.

(ii) Regulation of arterial blood pressure.

(iii) Regulation of hormonal secretion.

[GP] Q.16. Differences between Extra cellular fluid and intra cellular fluid.

Ans.

Extra cellular fluid	Intra cellular fluid
1.Extra cellular fluid remains outside the cell.	1.Intra cellular fluid remains inside the     cell.
2.It is about 14 liters.	2. It is about 28 liters.
3. It contains large amount of sodium, chloride, bicarbonate ions and glucose, amino acid, fatty acids, O2.	3. It contains large amount of potassium, magnesium, phosphate ions.
4. PH is avg. 7.3	4.  PH  is avg. 6.8

[GP] Q.15. What is internal environment? Why it is called internal environment?

Ans. Extra cellular fluid is called internal environment of the body.

Because, extra cellular fluid contains all nutrients and ions which is needed by the cells to maintain normal cellular life.

[BS] Q.16) Advantages of absence of nucleus in RBC:

Ans.

1. It gives biconcavity of RBC.
2. More room for Hb store.
3. It can easily passes through capillaries.

[BS] Q.15) Factors Controlling Erythropoisis:

Ans. 

A. General factors:

1. Diet- Protein of high biological value which provides amino acid for synthesis of globin portion of Hb.
2. Hypoxia – It is a potent stimulus for RBC production. It stimulates release of erythropoietin hormone from kidneys ,which stimulates bone marrow for erythroposis.
3. Erythropoitin hormone.
4. Other hormone- such as Thyroxin which stimulate bone marrow for erythroposis.

B. Haemoglobinization factors:

1. Iron- Essential for heam formation of Hb.

[BS] Q.14) Basic Changes in Erythropoisis :

Ans. 2 distinct major changes take place.

1. Multiplication – by which number of cell increase.

2. Maturation- by which cell becomes mature RBC R involves 3 different changes.

• A Gradual reduction of cell size & alteration of shape.
• Acquirement of Hb.
• Disappearance of nucleus & cessation of cell division.

[BS] Q.13) Development of RBC:

Ans.

Stages of erythropoisis-

a. Pluripotential Hematopoietic Stem Cell.

b. Pro erythroblast

c. Basophile erythroblast

d. Poly Chromatophil erythroblast

e. Ortho chromatic erythroblast

f. Reticulocyte

g. Erythrocyte

[BS] Q.12) Development of RBC:

Ans.

 A. Embryonic life:

a. 1^st Trimester – From mesoderm of yolk sac

b. 2^nd Trimester – from liver (mainly), spleen, lymph node

c. 3^rd Trimester – from bone marrow.

B. Extra Embryonic life:

a. Up to 20 years from long bones marrow.

b. Beyond 20 years from all membranous bone.

[BS] Q.11) Importence of biconcave shape of RBC:

1.  Provides a large surface are for the uptake & release of O2 & CO2 .
2.  Helps the RBC to Pass Through Capillaries & other structure of small diameter.

[BS] Q.10) Properties Erythrocyte (RBC):

• Shape- Circular, biconcave, non-nucleated & disc shaped.
• Diameter- 7.8 micrometer.
• Thickness- Center – 1 Micrometer

              Peripheral- 2.5 Micrometer.

• Volume- 90-95 cubic micrometer.
• Concentration in blood:

             Men- avg. 5,200,000 /Cu mm
             Women- avg. 4,700,00/ Cu mm

• Life span– 120 days.

[BS] Q.9) Function of Plasma Proteins :

Ans.

(A) Albumin:

1. It maintains about 80% of Colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.
2. It maintains viscosity of blood.
3. It has Buffer action by virtue of H+ icon acceptance.
4. Determines sp. gravity of plasma which is 1.028
5. Acts as carrier protein for hormones, fatty acid, bilirubin, metal & drugs.

[B] Globulin:

1. a1 globulin transport of hormone such as Thyroxin, Cortisole etc.
2. a2 globulin transport Cu as Ceruloplasmin.
3. b globulin transport of Fe++ as transferin.

[BS] Q.8) Indications of Plasma proteins transfusion:

Ans.

1. Extensive burn.
2. Liver disease.
3. Dengue hemorrhagic fever.
4. DIC.
5. Protein loosing enteropathy.
6. Bleeding disorder.

[BS] Q.7) Origin of plasma proteins:

Ans. 
a. In adult life:

Plasma proteins	Site of origin
Albumin	Liver
Globulin (α, β)	Liver
Globulin (ϒ)	Plasma cell
Prothrombin	Liver
Fibrinogen	Liver

b. In fetal life, all plasma proteins origin from mesenchymal cells.

[BS] Q.6) Define plasma protein. Types of plasma protein with their normal values.

Ans.  Protein remains in plasma is called plasma protein.
 Types of plasma proteins:

Major plasma proteins	Normal values (g/dl)
Albumin	4.8
Globulin	2.3
Fibrinogen	0.3
Prothrombin	0.1

[BS] Q.5) Properties of blood :

1. Color: Red (due to Hb).
2. Taste: Salty (due to presence of inorganic salts).
3. PH: 7.35 to 7.45
4. Specific gravity: 1.052 to 1.063
5. Viscosity: Blood is 5 times more viscous than H2O.
6. Osmotic pressure: 25mmHg.
7. Osmolality : 300mosm/L.
8. Volume : 5 to 6 liters.

[BS] Q.4) Composition of blood:

A) Formed elements (45%) :

-RBC, WBC, Platelet’s

WBC is divided into granulocytes (Neutrophil, Eosinophil,Basophil) and granulocytes(Lymphocyte, Monocyte)

B) Plasma (55%) :

a) H2O

b) Solid:

1. Organic : Plasma proteins(albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, prothombin ), Glucose, Fructose, Amino acid, Phospholipids, Cholesterol, Urea, uric acid, Creatinine, NH3, Antibody, Enzymes, Vitamins, Hormones, Bilirubin, Biliverdin.
2. Inorganic: Anions (SO4, PO4, HCO3, etc.), Cations ( Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe ).
3. Gaseous substances (N2,O2,CO2).

[BS] Q.3) Functions of blood:

1. Transport of respiratory gasses (O2 , CO2 , N2).
2. Transport of nutrition’s such as glucose, amino acid, fatty acids etc.
3. Excretion of metabolic waste products such as urea, uric acid, creatinine from tissue to kidneys.
4. Blood has HCO3, Hb, PO4, protein buffer system to maintains buffering activity as well as maintain acid base balance.
5. Transport of hormones.
6. Take part in defense activity of body with the help of WBC.
7. Take part in blood coagulation with the help of platelets.
8. Maintains plasma colloidal osmotic pressure by the help of plasma proteins.
9. Maintains water and electrolytes balance.

[BS] Q.2) Why Blood is called connective tissue ?

Ans.

1.  It is mesodermal in origin.
2.  Inter cellular substances( plasma) is maxi.( 55%) and cellular substances (RBC,WBC,Platelets) is mini. (45%)
3.  It is liquid in nature but other connective tissue is hard in nature.

[BS] Q.1) What is Blood ?

Ans. Blood is a specialized fluid form of connective tissue composed of plasma and formed elements (RBC, WBC, Platelets) which circulates through cardiovascular system of the body.

ROUTINE FOR 2ND PROF

ROUTINE FOR 1ST PROF

[GP] Q.14. What is Triple response ?

Ans. When the skin is stroked more firmly with a pointed instrument, there is reddening at the site (red reaction), then swelling (wheal) and diffuse, mottled reddening around the injury. This redness spreading out from injury (flare).

The initial redness is due to capillary dilation.

The swelling is due to increased capillaries and post capillary venules.

The redness spreading (flare) is due to arteriolar dilation.

This three part response, the red reaction, wheal, flare is called triple response.

[GP] Q.13. What is Rigor Mortis ?

Ans. Several hours after death, all the muscles of the body go into a state of contracture called rigor mortis; that is the muscles contract and become rigid, even without action potentials. This rigidity results from loss of all the ATP, which is need to cause separation of cross bridges from the actin filaments during the relaxation process.

[GP] Q.12. What is Motor unit ?

Ans. All the muscle fibers innervated by a single nerve fiber are called a motor unit.

[GP] Q.11. What is excitation-contraction coupling ?

Ans. The skeletal muscle fiber is so large that action potentials spreading along it’s surface membrane but almost no current (impulse) flow deep within the fiber. Yet, to cause maximum muscle contraction, current (impulse) must penetrate deeply into the muscle fiber to the vicinity of the separate myofibrils and this is achieved by transmission of action potentials along transverse tubules (T tubules) that penetrate all the way through the muscle fiber from one side of the fiber to the other side. Then these action potentials cause release of calcium ions inside the muscle fiber and these calcium ions then cause contraction.
This overall process is called excitation-contraction coupling. 

[GP] Q.9. What is Myasthenia Gravis?

Ans. It is an autoimmune disease in which antibodies attack the acetylcholine-gated sodium ion channels, so, enough nerve signals can’t passes from nerve fibers to muscle fibers of a neuromuscular junction, then muscle paralysis occurs. It is about 1 in every 20,000 presons.
 

[GP] Q.8. What is end plate potential ?

Ans. When action potential travels through a motor nerve fiber ending(pre synaptic membrane),then it causes release of neurotransmitter. Then neurotransmitter bind with receptors of the post synaptic membrane and causes depolarization of post synaptic membrane of a neuromuscular junction. It is called end plate potential.

[GP] Q.7. Types of carrier protein:

• a) Uniport : They transport only 1 substance.
• b) Symport(co transport) : Movement of two substances in same direction across membrane by carrier protein( example: Na+ glucose co transport, Na+ amino acid co transport.)
• c) Antiport(counter transport) : Movement of two substances in opposite direction across membrane by carrier protein( example :  Na⁺-K⁺ pump, Na⁺-H⁺ pump)

[GP] Q.6.) Difference between active & passive transport.

Ans. Active transport(primary active trasport & secondery active transport):S

1.Carrier protein needed.

2.Utilization of energy.

3.Enzyme needed.

4.Substances moves against concentration gradient(i.e.from lower to higher conc.).

5.Substances moves against electrochemical gradient.

Passive transport(osmosis & diffusion):

1. 1.Usually no need of Carrier protein(except faciliated diffusion).S

2. No need of energy.

3.Substances moves along the electrochemical gradient. (i.e.from higher to lower conc.).

General Physiology [ Day-2 ]

Q.3) What is Glycocalyx? What is it's function ?

 Ans. Outer surface of the cell membrane has a loose carbohydrate coat-called glycocalyx.It is negatively charge.

Functions:

1.One cell attached to another cell by glycocalyx.

2.It repel all negatively charged ions.

3.Acts as receptors for binding of hormones.

4.It take part in immune system.

Q.4) Name the Cell membrane proteins with their functions ?

Ans.There are two types of cell membrane proteins:

1.Integral protein

2.Peripheral protein

Functions:

1.Integral protein:

a) Acts as ion channels.

b)Acts as pumps e.g.Na⁺-k⁺ pump.

c)Acts as enzymes e.g.Na⁺-k⁺ ATPase.

d)Acts as Receptors.

2.Peripheral protein:

a)Acts as Acts as enzymes.

b)Acts as Receptors.

Q.5)What is Chromosome, Gene, Transcription, Translation ?

Ans. a) Chromosome:(chroma=color and soma=body).

Thread like darkly stained structures within the nucleus which carry

genetic information is called chromosome. Total number of chromosome =46 (autosome22 pairs, sex chromosome 1 pair).It consist of the following substances:

1.DNA

2.RNA

3.Basic protein histone

4.Non protein substances

b) Gene:

It is the portion of DNA and unit of heredity, lies within the chromosome.

c) Transcription:

It is the process in which genetic information is transmitted from

DNA to mRNA on the DNA strands by the enzyme RNA

polymerase.

d) Translation:

It is the process of formation of protein molecule by mRNA on

ribosome. In this process transmission of genetic information

occurs from mRNA to protein.

General Physiology [ Day-1 ]

Q-1 ) What is adaptive control ?
 Ans : Some movements of the body occur so rapidly that there is not enough time for nerve signals to travel from the peripheral parts of the body all the way to the brain and then back to the periphery again to control the movement then the brain uses a principle called feed-forward control to cause required muscle contractions. That is, sensory never signals from the moving parts apprise (inform) the brain whether the movement is performed correctly. If not, the brain corrects the feed-forward signals that it sends to the muscles the next time the movement is need. Then, if still further correction is needed, this will be done again for subsequent movements. This called adaptive control.
Adaptive control, in a sense, is delayed negative feedback system.

Q-2 ) What is Automaticity ?
Ans : Our body is made up of about 100 trillion cells organized into different functional structures which known as organs. Each functional structure (organ) contributes its share to the maintenance of homeostatic conditions in the extra-cellular fluid (such as respiratory system maintenance of O2,CO2 conc. GIT provides glucose, amino acid, fatty acid and other nutrients, kidney systems provides electrolytes ), which is called the internal environment. Each cell benefits from homeostasis, and in turn, each cell contributes its share toward the maintenance of homeostasis. As long as normal condition are maintained in this internal environment, the cells of the body continue to live and function properly. So this is called Automaticity.