[RS] Q.5) Pressure related to respiration:

ans.

a)    Intrapleural pressure

b)    Alveolar pressure (Intrapulmonary pressure)

c)    Transpulmonary pressure

a)Intrapleural pressure:

·  It is the pressure of the fluid in between two layers of pleura.

·  It requires to prevent lungs collapse.

·  It is always negative due to continual absorption of fluid from the space into the capillaries. This absorption creates a partial vacuum and produce a negative

[RS] Q.4) Muscles of respiration:

Ans. 

Muscles of respiration: 

A ) In quite inspiration:

• The Diaphragm
• External intercostal muscle

B ) In force full inspiration:

• The diaphragm
• External intercostal muscle
• Sternoclidomastoid muscle
• Scaleni muscle

[RS] Q.3) What is respiration, Phages of respiration, types of respiration, rate of respiration.

Ans.

Respiration:
                   It is a physiological process which means the transport of O2 from the atmosphere to cell of the body for oxidation and elimination of CO2 and other volatile metabolic end products from the cell to atmosphere.

Phages of respiration:

• Inspiration (active process) - It means intake of air into lungs. It is about 2 seconds.
• Expiration (passive process) – It means output of air from lungs. It is about 3seconds.

[RS] Q.2) Zone of Lungs:

Ans. 

i) Conductive zone.
ii) Respiratory zone.

Conductive zone: (From nose, Oropharynx, Pharynx, Larynx, trachea, bronchi up to terminal bronchioles)
It is the area of air ways where no gas exchange takes place due to thickness of the wall of muscle &

[RS] Q.1) Division of respiratory tract:

Ans.
 
a) Upper respiratory tract which included-

•  Nose 
•  Nasopharynx 
•  Oropharynx
•  Larynx up to vocal fold.

b) Lower respiratory tract which included-

• Larynx below the vocal fold 
• Trachea 
• Two bronchi
• Bronchioles 
• Terminal bronchioles
• Respiratory bronchioles 
• Alveolar duct 
• Atria 
• Air sac 
• Alveoli

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[CVS] Q.13) Name the vasodilator and vasoconstrictor agents.

Ans.
a. Vasodilator:

• -NO, kinins, prostacyclin, ANP, histamine, VIP,
• -↑ CO₂ , ↓O₂ , ↑ local temperature, ↓ local P ^H

b. Vasoconstrictor:

• -Angiotensin ІІ, epinephrine, nor-epinephrine, endothelin-1, thromboxaneA₂
• - ↓local temperature

[CVS] Q.12) Classify blood vessels on physiological point of view (functional classification):

Ans.

1. Windkesel ( distribution vessels): All large arteries .
2. Resistance vessels: Arterioles, terminal arterioles.
3. Exchange vessels: Capillaries.
4. Capacitance vessels: Veins and venacava.

[CVS] Q.11) What is AV nodal delay? Give its causes and importance:

Ans.
Definition: AV node is responsible for the delay in transmission of impulse generated in SA node. This delay in impulse transmission is called AV nodal delay. It is about 0.09 second.
Causes:

1. Junctional fibers of AV node are very small in size.
2. Resting membrane potentials of these fibers are much negative than the normal resting membrane potential of cardiac muscle.
3. Very few gap junctions connect the successive fibers in the pathway, so that there is great resistance to the conduction of excitatory ions from one fiber to the next.
4. Prolonged refractory period of AV node.

Importance:
For this delay, the atria get time to empty their content (blood) into the ventricles before ventricular contraction begins.

[CVS] Q.10) Why AV node is called reserve pacemaker of the heart?

Ans.
When SA node fails to generates impulse then AV node become the pace maker of the heart and generates impulse 40-60 impulse/min. So, AV node is called the reserve pacemaker of the heart.

[CVS] Q.9) Why SA node is called pacemaker of the heart?

Ans.

• SA node generates the impulse at first.
• Rate of impulse generation is higher (70-80 impulse/ min.) than any other junctional tissues of the heart.
• SA node maintains normal cardiac rhythm.

 

[CVS] Q.8) Name the junctional tissues of the heart with rate of impulse generation:

Ans.

Junctional tissues:	Impulse generation/ min.:
Sino-atrial node (SA node)	70-80
Inter nodal pathway	60
Atrio-ventricular node (AV node)	40-60
Bundle of His and its branches	30-36
Purkinje fiber	15-40

[CVS] Q.7) Properties of cardiac muscle:

Ans.

 1. Autorhythmicity
 2. Conductivity
 3. Excitability & contractility:
        a. All or none law.
        b. Frank starling law
4. Refractory period

[CVS] Q.6) What are the junctional tissues or conductive system of the heart?

Ans.
a) Sino-atrial node (SA node).
b) Inter nodal pathway.
c) Atrio-ventricular node (AV node).
d) AV bundle or bundle of His and its branches.
e) Purkinje fibers.

[CVS] Q.5) Types of heart muscle:

Ans.

    a) Atrial muscle
    b) Ventricular muscle
    c) Specialized excitatory and conductive muscle fibers:
                                 i. SA node
                                ii. Inter nodal pathway
                               iii. AV node
                               iv. AV bundle
                                v. Left and right bundles of purkinje fibers

[CVS] Q.4) Function of heart valves:

Ans.

1. One way direction of blood flow.
2. Prevents regurgitation of back flow of blood during their opening and closure.
3. Concern with production of heart sounds.

[CVS] Q.3) Types of heart valves:

Ans. There are four types of heart valves:

1. Right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve due to three cusps).
2. Left atrioventricular valve (mitral valve or bicuspid valve due to two cusps).
3. Aortic valve (Semi lunar valves or tricuspid valve).
4. Pulmonary valve (Semi lunar valves or tricuspid valve).

[CVS] Q.2) How many openings of the heart ?

Ans.

There are four openings in the heart:

•  Right atrio-ventricular opening (in between  right   Atrium &  right  Ventricle)
• Left atrio-ventricular opening (in between  left  Atrium &  left  Ventricle)
• Aortic opening (arise from left ventricle)
• Pulmonary opening (arise from right ventricle)

[CVS] Q.1) Chamber of the heart:

Ans.

Heart has four chambers:

1. Right atrium
2.  Left atrium
3. Right ventricle
4.  Left ventricle

• Right & left atrium receive blood from periphery of the body.
• Right & left ventricle pump out blood to whole body.

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[GP] Q.18. Examples of Positive feedback system.

* Blood clotting.

* Child birth during parturition.

* Generation of nerve action potential.

* Luteinizing Hormone surge before ovulation.

[GP] Q.17. Examples of Negative feedback system.

Ans.

(i) Regulation of carbon dioxide concentration.

(ii) Regulation of arterial blood pressure.

(iii) Regulation of hormonal secretion.

[GP] Q.16. Differences between Extra cellular fluid and intra cellular fluid.

Ans.

Extra cellular fluid	Intra cellular fluid
1.Extra cellular fluid remains outside the cell.	1.Intra cellular fluid remains inside the     cell.
2.It is about 14 liters.	2. It is about 28 liters.
3. It contains large amount of sodium, chloride, bicarbonate ions and glucose, amino acid, fatty acids, O2.	3. It contains large amount of potassium, magnesium, phosphate ions.
4. PH is avg. 7.3	4.  PH  is avg. 6.8

[GP] Q.15. What is internal environment? Why it is called internal environment?

Ans. Extra cellular fluid is called internal environment of the body.

Because, extra cellular fluid contains all nutrients and ions which is needed by the cells to maintain normal cellular life.

[BS] Q.16) Advantages of absence of nucleus in RBC:

Ans.

1. It gives biconcavity of RBC.
2. More room for Hb store.
3. It can easily passes through capillaries.

[BS] Q.15) Factors Controlling Erythropoisis:

Ans. 

A. General factors:

1. Diet- Protein of high biological value which provides amino acid for synthesis of globin portion of Hb.
2. Hypoxia – It is a potent stimulus for RBC production. It stimulates release of erythropoietin hormone from kidneys ,which stimulates bone marrow for erythroposis.
3. Erythropoitin hormone.
4. Other hormone- such as Thyroxin which stimulate bone marrow for erythroposis.

B. Haemoglobinization factors:

1. Iron- Essential for heam formation of Hb.

[BS] Q.14) Basic Changes in Erythropoisis :

Ans. 2 distinct major changes take place.

1. Multiplication – by which number of cell increase.

2. Maturation- by which cell becomes mature RBC R involves 3 different changes.

• A Gradual reduction of cell size & alteration of shape.
• Acquirement of Hb.
• Disappearance of nucleus & cessation of cell division.

[BS] Q.13) Development of RBC:

Ans.

Stages of erythropoisis-

a. Pluripotential Hematopoietic Stem Cell.

b. Pro erythroblast

c. Basophile erythroblast

d. Poly Chromatophil erythroblast

e. Ortho chromatic erythroblast

f. Reticulocyte

g. Erythrocyte

[BS] Q.12) Development of RBC:

Ans.

 A. Embryonic life:

a. 1^st Trimester – From mesoderm of yolk sac

b. 2^nd Trimester – from liver (mainly), spleen, lymph node

c. 3^rd Trimester – from bone marrow.

B. Extra Embryonic life:

a. Up to 20 years from long bones marrow.

b. Beyond 20 years from all membranous bone.

[BS] Q.11) Importence of biconcave shape of RBC:

1.  Provides a large surface are for the uptake & release of O2 & CO2 .
2.  Helps the RBC to Pass Through Capillaries & other structure of small diameter.

[BS] Q.10) Properties Erythrocyte (RBC):

• Shape- Circular, biconcave, non-nucleated & disc shaped.
• Diameter- 7.8 micrometer.
• Thickness- Center – 1 Micrometer

              Peripheral- 2.5 Micrometer.

• Volume- 90-95 cubic micrometer.
• Concentration in blood:

             Men- avg. 5,200,000 /Cu mm
             Women- avg. 4,700,00/ Cu mm

• Life span– 120 days.

[BS] Q.9) Function of Plasma Proteins :

Ans.

(A) Albumin:

1. It maintains about 80% of Colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.
2. It maintains viscosity of blood.
3. It has Buffer action by virtue of H+ icon acceptance.
4. Determines sp. gravity of plasma which is 1.028
5. Acts as carrier protein for hormones, fatty acid, bilirubin, metal & drugs.

[B] Globulin:

1. a1 globulin transport of hormone such as Thyroxin, Cortisole etc.
2. a2 globulin transport Cu as Ceruloplasmin.
3. b globulin transport of Fe++ as transferin.

[BS] Q.8) Indications of Plasma proteins transfusion:

Ans.

1. Extensive burn.
2. Liver disease.
3. Dengue hemorrhagic fever.
4. DIC.
5. Protein loosing enteropathy.
6. Bleeding disorder.

[BS] Q.7) Origin of plasma proteins:

Ans. 
a. In adult life:

Plasma proteins	Site of origin
Albumin	Liver
Globulin (α, β)	Liver
Globulin (ϒ)	Plasma cell
Prothrombin	Liver
Fibrinogen	Liver

b. In fetal life, all plasma proteins origin from mesenchymal cells.